Theological Strategy: A Model for Spiritually Healthy
Change
Practical Theology Interest Group
Alan Ehler, DMin, Southeastern University
Presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Society
for Pentecostal Studies
Facilitating effective change is one of
the biggest challenges of ministry leadership. Like a rail car headed toward a
missing bridge, to fail to change is often to risk disaster. Yet like derailing
the car onto a rock slide to avoid the missing bridge, mishandled change can be
just as destructive. The vast majority of Western churches need to change to
see their missions fulfilled.[1]
Yet, idealistic ministers may take over some of these struggling ministries
with the best of intentions and the latest in ministry skills and fads only to
fuel their churches’ slides even further in the wrong direction.
There are many reasons why change does and
does not succeed. The business world has studied change science for decades
with classics like John Kotter’s, Leading
Change (1996), and Spencer Johnson’s, Who Stole My Cheese (1998).[2]
Church researchers and consultants like Aubrey Malphurs, Ed Stetzer and Mike
Dodson, and Dan Southerland then took principles from the business world and
developed methodologies to guide churches through change.[3]
Meanwhile, the newly modified discipline
of Practical Theology grew in influence in seminaries with its goal of
“critical theological reflection arising out of and giving guidance to the
practices of a local faith community.”[4]
Yet, although the objectives of Practical Theology neatly fit within the
objectives of leading healthy change in churches, few church leaders have been
equipped with an effective and workable approach to Practical Theology that can
be used to lead healthy change in their local churches.
The goal of this paper is to present an
overview of an approach that takes the best in Practical Theology and applies
it in a framework that local church leaders can apply to develop healthy and
effective strategic plans. The framework
is called Story Shaping and draws its name from the use of “story” as a term to
define the worldviews (or paradigms) held by the parties of the process. The
term “story” is used in place of worldview because worldview connotes a
cosmological perspective that does not always translate well to a particular
situation. A pastor and his congregation may share the same worldview in all
critical areas, such as beliefs in the Trinity, the Resurrection of Christ, and
the active presence of the Holy Spirit, yet have foundational disagreement
about the role of the pastor and what makes a church “good.” Many failures in
church strategic change can be traced to conflicts of story at this level.
Although Story Shaping is a form of
Practical Theology, this approach does not dismiss the efforts of other
disciplines. Practical Theologian Jerome Cottin explains, “The discipline of Practical
Theology seeks to make connections between the various branches of Social
Studies in and outside Theology [to make it] a science for the contemporary
world.”[5]
Story Shaping seeks to integrate findings from decision science, neurology, and
business, while maintaining a theological heart.
Richard Osmer has identified four key
tasks of Practical Theology: What is going on? (The descriptive-empirical task)
Why is this going on? (The interpretative task) What ought to be going on? (The
normative task) How might we respond? (The pragmatic task).[6]
Story Shaping merges these four tasks into three: 1) Read the old story (This
integrates Osmer’s first two tasks), 2) Write the new story, and 3) Tell the
new story. The overall framework of Story Shaping can be applied in many
contexts including conflict resolution, decision making, counseling,
evangelism, spiritual formation, and habit change, but the objective of this
paper is to consider the process as applied to church and ministry strategic
change. This paper will provide a very brief overview of the Story Shaping
process, the academic and biblical basis for the approach, a few comments on
how it can be applied to church and ministry planning, and conclude a with
brief discussion of Acts 15 as a paradigmatic example of Practical Theology and
Story Shaping.
STEP ONE – READ THE OLD
STORY
Misunderstandings and misinterpretations are
at the root of many failed change efforts. Differences in culture and
education, even when subtle, can have a huge impact in how people understand
the world, others, and how and why things happen. Each person uses a different story to understand and explain the
world and their role in it. These
story differences are the source of much of the world’s conflict and have
caused large problems for governments, corporations, and all kinds of
relationships. This is why Story Shaping begins with reading the old story. This
is a major shift from business model-based church strategic planning methods,
such as that developed by Aubrey Malphurs, which begin with theory then work
toward practice.[7]
This practice-theory-practice approach was developed by Practical Theology
pioneers like Don Browning.[8]
This step encompasses seeing what is happening currently, determining why it is
happening (including the “stories” of those involved), and speculating how God
might be at work in the situation.
A) What is Happening?
The first step of Story Shaping when
applied to church strategy is to analyze the current situation. This involves
identifying what appears to be healthy and functioning well and what is not.
B) Why is It Happening?
Like a doctor trying to diagnose the
illness responsible for the symptoms, the pastor needs to identify the causes
for unhealthy and healthy situations in the church; those certain, likely, and
speculative. Some of these factors are external to the church. If the major
employer in the region has shut down operations, an exodus of attenders seeking
employment elsewhere is a likely cause for a decline in attendance. Likely
external factors should be listed at this point.
Internal factors are often more
significant, in particular the “stories” by which people understand themselves,
others, their churches, and the world. Story Shaping presents the metaphor of a
pair of glasses with four layers to each lens to help leaders understand the
factors at work when dealing with change, conflict, habits, and other
decisions.
THE
STORY READING GLASSES
Most people are unaware of how much their
own perspectives shape how they understand things. People rarely consider their
eyes’ lenses’ role in how they see things. Yet, many must get corrective lenses
– whether spectacles or contacts – to accurately see things as they are. In a
similar way, people’s mental understanding is always affected by
interpretation. Many strands of Practical Theology acknowledge the “inherently
hermeneutical nature of human experience” and the role of narrative
hermeneutics in facilitating change.[9]
Every individual has a story that
functions like layers of lenses embedded together that shape the individual’s
understanding of what is and what is not, what can be and what cannot be, what
must be and what must not be, and what should and should not be. These stories
have developed from family, education, religious training, experiences,
thoughts and reflections, the media, friends, and a variety of other sources.[10]
People understand themselves by story. “Identity must be narratively
construed.”[11] These
metaphorical story reading glasses consist of two different lenses, each with
four layers. The left lens represents things people consider intentionally:
beliefs, ethics, values, and reason.[12]
The right lens represents “thinking without thinking” impulses: desires,
instincts, skills, and habits.
INTENTIONAL
LENS LAYER ONE - BELIEFS
Whether a Christian, a Muslim, an
Agnostic, or an Atheist, every person has beliefs. Beliefs answer the questions,
“What is?” and “What is not?” as well as “How do things work?” Beliefs include cosmological
questions of how the world came into existence and the individual’s place in
it, but beliefs also include basic, day-to-day functions of every area of life.
Beliefs are often, but not always, the foundation for all of the other layers.
Beliefs vary between cultures and religious systems, but also between families
and individuals.
Beliefs have an enormous impact on
performance in education, work, and relationships. Stanford University Professor of Psychology
Carol Dweck has researched how people function at this level. She uses the term
mindset rather than belief, but her
research shows how powerfully beliefs affect people’s actions and ability to
find success and happiness in life. She has found two predominant mindsets
among people: fixed and growth. People with fixed mindsets tend
to view their abilities and intelligence as unchangeable. Those with the growth
mindset see themselves and others as capable of learning and improving.[13] A church leader with a fixed mindset is likely to be
very resistant to change and may oppose a pastor’s effort to implement a new
ministry approach.
INTENTIONAL LENS LAYER TWO - ETHICS
The ethics layer determines the answer to the
questions, “What should and should not be?” and “What must and must not be?” Although
Bible-believing Christians assume they draw most of their shoulds and musts from
the Bible, not all ethics are as clear or grounded as they might think.
Like beliefs, a lot of ethics come from
religious backgrounds and parents. However, society and the media have
influenced many people to change their ethics. The great eighteenth century
economist Adam Smith recognized how effective the new genre of the novel was in
shaping the views of the people of his day toward the interaction between
classes, sexual morals, and the economics of inheritance.[14] Many studies have shown how movies,
television, and news media have increased Americans’ attitudes toward and
acceptance of homosexuality.[15] Audiences
can emotionally identify with characters who represent ethics they might have
opposed previously. These vivid, emotional portrayals enable the readers and
viewers to see through the characters’ eyes and understand their perspectives.
This can lead to a softening of “cans” and “musts.” Peer pressure can have a
similar effect in changing ethics in individuals and communities.
Unspoken and unwritten ethics drive
individual expectations of relationships and much that happens at church.
Although most Christians in one church may agree that part of their mission is
to reach the lost, there may be some very strongly held convictions about what
is acceptable in achieving that mission. A rapidly growing church near Seattle
hosted a wine-tasting events called “Drinks for Drinks” to raise money to drill
wells in Africa,[16]
an event that would produce ire in a more traditional, tea-totaling
congregation. Identifying ethics held by various constituencies in a
congregation can be a part of diagnosing problems at work in the old story and
predicting potential conflict as the new story is written and told.
INTENTIONAL LENS LAYER THREE - VALUES
The next layer of the intentional lens is
values. These are things individuals and societies truly and deeply care about.
Values are also relative within a community or individual. The values questions
are “What matters most?” and “What matters more?” The impulsive right lens has
a layer called desires, but these are distinct from values in that they are
immediate urges that may not reflect deeply held values.
Like the previous two layers, values are
shaped by families, education, media, peers, and religion, but tend to vary even
more from individual to individual. Many values are directly drawn from ethics
and beliefs, but this is not always the case. A Christian woman can value being
known for honesty and integrity in large part because of her biblical beliefs and
Christian ethics. However, another woman could hold that same value because of
belief that people trusting her as a salesperson will lead to more sales.
An individual and society’s beliefs and
values often determine how it responds to crisis, conflict, and change.[17]
This is why values is a critical layer in the story shaping lens and
determining the values of those involved is essential in leading healthy and
effective change. If a person fears losing something of great personal value in
change, he will not be eager to make that change. Yet, if he can be shown
something of even greater value is risked by not changing, he may be more
willing to make that change.
INTENTIONAL LENS LAYER FOUR - REASON
The final layer of the intentional lens is
reason. This is the intentional mental processing of new information, experiences,
and their implications. People can use reason to determine if a message is true
(internally consistent) and good (in line with their ethics). People can use
reason to seek inconsistencies in others’ arguments. Reason can also determine
how opportunities, challenges, and the views of others compare or contrast to
one’s own beliefs, ethics, and values. Reason can help determine action,
especially in complex situations. Reasoning
can be used to take new information gleaned from reading, education, research,
experience, or relationships to “fill in the blanks” of previously unknown
beliefs and to adjust beliefs (and subsequently, ethics and values)
accordingly.
It is not uncommon for something on one
story layer to be incompatible with that on another within the same individual.
Sometimes the individual may be completely unaware of the conflict. Other times
the individual may be very aware. An example of the second type of conflict is
a person who holds the religious ethic that adultery is wrong yet surrenders to
the impulse to have an affair with a coworker anyway. The guilt he experiences
is a direct result of his awareness of the conflict between his ethics and his
actions.
Not all internal story conflicts face that
kind of guilt and awareness, though. An example of ignorant internal story
conflict is the person who reacts in anger at others who cut him off in
traffic, while also being angry at those who honk at him when he cuts them off.
In this case, his story is conflicted at the same level. We use the common expression
“double standard” for one who has one ethic for himself and another for
everyone else.
Reasoning can be a part of the process of
correcting internal story conflict. Reasoning can occur by individuals and by
communities, especially in the midst of crises in which old (usually impulsive)
views and modes of action are no longer effective. Story Shaping itself is a
reasoning process that seeks to recognize the roles of the other intentional
and impulsive lens layers of ourselves and others to make the best decisions
possible in a variety of situations.
It should be made clear that reasoning has
its limitations. Some choose not to evaluate a conflict between experience and
beliefs and hold onto their beliefs in spite of the evidence. Others will
choose to cling to old ethics and values when their belief systems change. The
nineteenth century Danish philosopher Soren Kirekegaard wrote, “Human reason
has boundaries,” while making the point the vast majority of human decisions
are not based on reasoned, rational consideration but rather “subjective
meaning.”[18]
His thoughts are supported by much of the latest findings of neuroscience and
decision science.
RIGHT (IMPULSIVE) LENS
Dr. Daniel Kahneman has been researching
the way people make decisions for over four decades. He and his partner Amos
Tverski discovered that humans tend to default to one of two systems for
decision making. System One is quick, automatic, and impulsive. System Two is
slower, deliberate, and rational. His book’s title, Thinking, Fast and Slow, lays out the implications of these two
different systems in a variety of settings. People tend to use System One far
more often because it takes less effort. Many problems stem from defaulting to
System One instead of intentionally using System Two.[19]
Other research psychologists have observed
similar behavior in a large number of tests. Some have termed this phenomenon
the Heuristic Systems Method.[20]
A related concept is called the Elaboration Likelihood Method,[21]
but all three models have a similar core concept: People tend to make quick
decisions by defaulting to heuristics –
rules of thumb, gut reactions, and other cues they have picked up to try and
make decisions as effectively as possible without expending much time and
effort, unless they view something of sufficient value and uncertainty to
warrant intentional, reasoned processing.
While Kahneman and the others spend most
of their time pointing out the flaws of using System One (fast thinking)
heuristics in decision making, the reality is the vast majority of the time it
works well. The pioneering American Psychologist William James saw the fact
that humans have “a far greater variety of impulses than any other lower
animal” as the reason why our brains so effective.[22]
In fact, it would be very difficult to get anything accomplished if people had
to analytically process every decision they made.
In How
We Decide, Jonah Lehrer cites many neuroscientific research studies that
have demonstrated the impulsive and emotional region of the brain’s ability to
learn to function automatically and to make quick decisions without intentional
effort.[23]
Fast thinking and quick decisions have their place, but they can also cause
real problems when we resort to them when a deliberate decision making process
like Story Shaping would prevent errors. Kahneman provides several examples of
how the fast-thinking, impulsive System One function of the brain fools people.
It looks for cues to make quick decisions, but its method of judging and handling
those cues cannot always be trusted.[24]
Neuroscientists have discovered that a
different region in our brains is used for this fast thinking – the amygdala.
Daniel Goleman points out how the amygdala is tied to emotions and memories.
The prefrontal cortex is used for rational processing, what Kahneman calls
System Two: slow, deliberate thinking. Goleman points out how strong emotions
tend to activate the amygdala in what he calls “an amygdala hijacking” that
prevents people from accessing the more intentional prefrontal cortex and
System Two.[25]
In the metaphor of the story reading
glasses, System One, the fast thinking brain region, corresponds to the
impulsive right lens to imply that deliberate effort is not used in thinking
and deciding. This lens has four layers (whose first letters spell DISH) that
can shape what people see and how they act.
IMPULSIVE LENS LAYER ONE: DESIRES
Desires are emotional and physical urges. Many of these are natural and essential parts
of human systems. If a man is thirsty, he craves water. The man’s body warns
him to drink to avoid the debilitating effects of dehydration. However, acting
on some desires can be destructive. Slugging a spouse in the face in the midst
of argument may be acting on a strong desire, but it will not build a healthy
marriage. Fear is a powerful urge that can save a life by avoiding an imminent
accident in a trained driver. However, fear also cuts off the ability to reason
and access intentional thinking in an amygdala hijacking.
IMPULSIVE LENS LAYER TWO: INSTINCTS
Instincts are actions done without thinking that
do not require any learning. An example is breathing. Babies are born from the
womb breathing. Most human bodies’ systems function instinctively. Instincts
also constitute things people sense to be right or true without conscious
consideration. Although instincts are often accurate, Kahneman provides many
examples from a variety of disciplines in which “experts trust their guts” with
disastrous results. One of these is the “Sports
Illustrated jinx.” The world’s leading sports magazine seeks the “hottest”
player in professional sports over the previous month and sticks a photo on the
cover under the assumption that hot streak will continue. More often than not,
the month after the issue is published, the player’s performance plummets.
Kahneman does not believe this is some cosmic curse or jinx, but rather a
statistical regression to the mean. The streak was not a sudden improvement in
that player’s ability but rather a statistical anomaly. The post SI cover crash is simply the player
returning to normal.[26]
The SI editors’ guts led them astray
when rational statistical analysis would have spared them (and their athletes
of the month) embarrassment.
IMPULSIVE LENS LAYER THREE: SKILLS
Skills are complex abilities that are
initially learned through intentional effort but are later used by individuals
without conscious thought. Driving a car is an example. A typical sixteen year
old concentrates on every aspect of driving, for example, how hard to push
which pedal, when to turn, and when to turn on a signal light. However, an
experienced adult driver rarely concentrates on the specific mechanics of
driving, unless dangerous conditions are present.
In The
Talent Code, Daniel Coyle gives many examples of how exceptionally skilled
people who appear to have an abundance of “talent” actually have learned skills
through what he calls “deep practice.” This is intentional repetition of
challenging activities until they become second nature. One who has reached
this level does not need to invest the time and mental energy in making
decisions but can respond by instinct.[27]
IMPULSIVE LENS LAYER FOUR: HABITS
Habits are behaviors developed at some
earlier point that have become routine and are done without thinking. The
difference between habits and skills is that skills require intentional effort
to master. Habits are not difficult to learn but are picked up by intentional
or unintentional repetition. As with so many things on the impulsive side, some
habits are good; some are destructive. It takes intentional effort to stop bad
habits. One of the biggest challenges to habit change is not fully accessing
the intentional side of the brain.
As the pastor or leader continues to read
the old story, identifying the metaphorical story reading glasses worn by all
affected can help reveal the motives for actions that contribute to the current
situation and how people will likely receive change as it is implemented. Once
the external and internal contributing factors are discovered, the next
question asked in reading the old story is the
question of Practical Theology.
C) How Might God Be at Work?
Practical Theology seeks to “interpret the
revelatory realism of God’s action in concrete, lived experience.”[28]
The second major step, Writing the New Story, involves significant reflection
on what God would have people do in their situations, and that section will go
into more detail on theological reflection, particularly in a Pentecostal
congregation. At this earlier point, the goal is to identify what God may
already be doing. There may be some significant hints God is at work. Some of
these may be obvious, and some may be subtle.[29]
Leonard Sweet’s book on evangelism is
called, Nudge: Awakening Each Other to
the God Who’s Already There.[30]
The title itself communicates an understanding that God is already at work in
people’s lives before they fully embrace him. A leader who recognizes God at
work in a situation can point that out to those involved to encourage an
appropriate response. At this point the point in the Story Shaping process, the
leadership can pray, reflect, and ask: How might God be at work? Do we sense
the Holy Spirit speaking? Are there more subtle hints of God’s work among us in
this situation?
As the old story is wrapped up, three core
questions have been clarified: What is happening? Why is it happening? How
might God be at work? Now, it is time to begin to write the new story.
STEP TWO – WRITE THE NEW
STORY
This is the heart of the Story Shaping
process. In most applications, this is where the actual decision is made. In
planning, the major components of the plan are put together in this stage.
There are three major substeps of writing the new story in Story Shaping, all
starting with the letter P: People, Prospect, and Plan. Some of these have many
possible approaches within them. Not all of these need to be used in every
application.
A) People
The first question to ask when writing the
new story is, “Who should be on the story writing team?” Some decisions are
best made with others. In church and ministry major planning, a team is usually
best because:
·
Many people will be impacted by the
decision
·
Several different viewpoints are held by
those affected
·
There is likely to be opposition to a
final decision (representation on the decision team can alleviate some of this)
·
The decision will have a large impact on
the organization’s future
·
Enacting the plan will require many
individuals
Jim Collins found “getting the right
people on the bus” was one of the first steps corporations took who made the
leap from good to great.[31]
Founding pastor of Willow Creek Community Church, Bill Hybels, developed the
Three C criteria for hiring staff that not only included competency at the skills required by the job, but also character and chemistry.[32]
An individual’s integrity and ability to work with others on the team is
essential for the team’s success.
So, in selecting the best story writing
team possible, leaders can look for the following:
·
People of character
·
People who work well with others
·
People who sincerely care about the future
of the person, group, or organization
·
People representing the major
constituencies affected
·
People with “adjustable lenses” willing to
consider new possibilities and other ways of thinking
·
People willing to speak their minds and
risk disagreement[33]
Another important consideration is the
size of the decision team. The more people on the team, the more time decisions
take and the more difficult it can be to get consensus. There is not a hard and
fast rule on the best size for a decision team, but planning teams usually function
well with around twelve.
B) Prospect
The main decision component of Story
Shaping is called Prospect because of the uncertain nature of most solutions.
Decision scientists Chip and Dan Heath have determined that most businesses and
individuals fail to make the best decisions possible because of what they call
“narrow framing.”[34]
This is assuming there should be one clear right decision or a simple choice
between two options, what they call “Either/Or Thinking.” To avoid this, Story
Shaping lays out seven parts of prospecting that all begin with the letter R in
order to get as many possible solutions
as possible, narrow them to a manageable list, thoroughly evaluate each option,
and make the best decision possible.
1)
Raise the Number of Options
Story Shaping fights narrow framing to get
as many creative options as possible. In 1953 Alex Faickney Osborne popularized
the concept of “brainstorming” in his book, Applied
Imagination. This process has been adapted and widely used by many in group
creativity and problem solving. A facilitator clarifies an objective and
members of the team present as many ideas as possible with no limits to
viability or absurdity.[35] When
well facilitated in a group that feels free to share and be creative,
brainstorming can lead to some very creative solutions. The keys are: 1 – Let
the ideas flow, 2 – Write them down, 3 – Suppress comments and attitudes that
stifle creativity (for example, “That is stupid. That won’t work.”) 4 – Encourage
people to dream without boundaries as ideas are shared.
However, studies have shown that in many
conditions brainstorming can actually reduce the number of options generated.
Individuals in these studies came up with more ideas working on their own than
working in groups. This is attributed to several factors. One is called
blocking. This is when one person has an idea to share but another takes the
floor first. While that idea is being recorded, the individual who has not yet
shared forgets the idea.[36]
Another is fixation. This is the tendency for people to be influenced by
others’ ideas to the extent that they stop sharing their own.[37]
These limiting factors of brainstorming
can be overcome by a combination of private and public brainstorming. Brainstorming
team members make lists of their own ideas first privately in written form and
give them to the facilitator who compiles the list for the whole team to “prime
the pump” and get ideas flowing.
A tool to help generate more ideas is to ask
expanding questions to encourage team members to view things in new frames.
Here are some examples of expanding questions:
·
What would you do if you were guaranteed
to succeed and had unlimited resources?
·
What would _____ (Jesus, the Apostle Paul,
Albert Einstein, Yoda, Ronald Reagan, my successor, my predecessor, my best
friend) do?
·
What would you do if you could not do any
of the options selected so far?
·
What are we giving up by making this
choice?
·
Envision the best future possible. What
did we do to get there?
In Smartcuts,
Shane Snow tells the story of his college roommate who set the world record for
the video game Super Mario Brothers, not by beating every boss on every level
but by discovering secret Warp Pipes hidden in the game by the developers that
enabled those who discovered them to pass through multiple levels without a
single obstacle. He uses those ladders as a metaphor for what he calls
smartcuts – ways to skip the normal steps others take to gain success quickly.
He uses many examples from a variety of fields to show that the step by step
process is not always (or even usually) the best process to follow.[38]
Instead, Snow says we should pursue
“Lateral Thinking,” a concept he borrowed from Edward De Bono. De Bono
encourages putting on a variety of “thinking hats” to view opportunities and
options through a variety of perspectives. This can be done in a group, with
various members figuratively (or even literally) wearing colored hats
representing the perspectives they are to consider and share. The facilitator
wears the blue hat to clarify the objective and rules, encourage all
participants to share, and to keep everyone on track. Those wearing the white
hats share the facts related to the situation (much like Story Shaping’s Read
the Old Story step). The red hats share their immediate, gut reactions and
ideas. The black hats then approach the problem logically, pointing out
problems and barriers and any weaknesses in the ideas shared to this point.
Those wearing the yellow hats focus on benefits and look for harmony, while
those in the green hats encourage the team too probe more deeply, explore new
options, and investigate possibilities.[39]
Another suggestion to increase the number
of options is to get the input of someone with a fresh perspective, especially
if they are a disinterested expert. “Insiders” can become so acclimated to the
status quo that it becomes difficult to see any other possibility. Consultants
can be familiar with many workable solutions and emotionally separated from the
status quo enough to be free to give good suggestions.[40]
2)
Reduce the Options to a Manageable Number
Once the growth of new creative solutions
seems to be nearly exhausted, it is time to reduce the number of options to be
considered.
Experts in corporate problem solving for
the Boston Consulting Group, Luc de Brabandere and Alan Iny, laid out an
approach in their book, Thinking in New
Boxes, that involves five steps: 1) Doubt Everything, 2) Probe the
Possible, 3) Diverge, 4) Converge, 5) Evaluate Relentlessly. Their step three,
diverge, lines up with Story Shaping’s “raise the number of options,” and
converge corresponds with “reduce the options to a manageable number.” They
call for these essential steps to get people to not be bound by “old boxes” of
limited thinking. The expanded creativity usually leads to the best solutions,
but effective consideration of options requires a limited number.[41]
Depending on the application, three to seven options allows each to be
carefully studied while providing a reasonable ranges of possibilities.
The option reducing process starts by
eliminating those that obviously will not accomplish the objectives, do not
inspire the planning team, or do not match with the organization’s ethics and
values. Next, merging ideas can be considered. “And” is often better than “or.”
With the remaining options, representative options over a range of likely
successful choices can provide good test cases for further study. The final
list can be identified, and each option considered in the next steps.
3)
Reflect Theologically
Theological reflection is at the core of
Practical Theology. This has been the key missing component in most of the
business models adapted for church planning. Yet, as mentioned earlier,
Practical Theology’s objective is to connect practice and theory.[42]
By definition, the church’s mission is God’s mission. Determining what a church
should do is a theological activity.[43]
The challenge is to make what has been considered an erudite activity for
academic theologians accessible for church leaders. A series of specific steps
can help lay and pastoral leaders reflect theologically as they seek to improve
mission effectiveness.
Look
for applicable biblical commands and examples:
Pentecostal believers (and many other Christians) have historically turned to
the scriptures as their first step for guidance. They believe the Bible is “not
just a book about what God has done in the past but is first and foremost about
God’s direct and immediate word for their lives in the present.”[44]
The challenge is to determine how the Bible should
be applied in a certain situation with seemingly endless numbers of ways to
twist the meaning of words. Yong does not hesitate to give freedom to allow the
Holy Spirit to speak through the scriptures with the Christian community of all
ages “bearing witness and passing judgment” (I Corinthians 14:29) and helping
to interpret and apply God’s message to their churches and lives.[45]
The clearest New Testament commands are a good starting place. Parallel
examples of biblical characters are a next good step. Implied life principles
can often be distilled from narrative passages.[46]
Listen
to the Holy Spirit: The New Testament gives several
examples of the Holy Spirit giving direction to the Apostles through dreams,
visions, prophecy, and being “led by the Spirit.”[47]
Pentecostals have always been open to divine guidance. One of the earliest
scholars of the movement, Stanley Frodsham, went so far as to say, “Is it
possible to be led by the Spirit of God every day in the year, every hour of
the day, and every moment of every hour?
Most assuredly.”[48] However, even the earliest Apostles did not
appear to get divine guidance on a daily basis. A study of how the Apostle Paul
made decisions in his ministry shows that he did receive some divine guidance, but
a slight majority of the decisions Paul made as recorded in the Acts of the
Apostles were his own reasoned decisions.[49]
Certainly Paul drew from his reservoir of wisdom, but there seemed to be no
supernatural occurrence in these cases. Acts 16:3 is one example: “Paul wanted
[Timothy] to go with him; and he took him and circumcised him because
of the Jews who were in those parts, for they all knew that his father was a
Greek.” (NASB) Paul took Timothy because he wanted
to take him. He circumcised him first to avoid conflict with the Jews in the
area, since Timothy was half Jewish. Both Acts 20:3 and 16 use the word
“decided” to describe Paul’s choice in travel modes and destinations. There is
good reasoning used in both cases, but nothing supernatural. Add to this that
Luke only records the most significant of decisions, and it is apparent that
although God gave some supernatural guidance to Paul, it was the exception
rather than the norm.
The Anglican Triad of authority stated
that scripture could be understood by tradition and reason. The Wesleyan
Quadrilateral added experience as a means to validate the biblical message.
Perhaps a Pentecostal Pentagon should be proposed that adds a fifth leg of
revelation, made distinct from experience (at least in the mind of the recipient)
by the externally initiated nature of revelation and its goal to convey new
information to the recipient. Yet, the risk of outlandish behavior done in the
name of God’s direction has driven Spirit seeking communities to exercise
“discernment” (I Corinthians 12:10). All prophetic utterances and supernatural
activity needs to have the witness of the Christian community to substantiate
it before action (I Corinthians 14:29).[50]
Christian believers who look to the New
Testament for exemplars of God’s working can be open to praying and listening
for God’s direction without staying frozen in indecision in its absence. James
says to ask God for wisdom (James 1:5). Although he does not define it
explicitly, he seems to mean the ability to make moral and practical decisions
apart from unmistakably supernatural guidance.[51]
4)
Research
The next step in the process is also
very much in keeping with the objectives of Practical Theology. Research can
occur in several ways and should be focused on data that can be helpful toward
the specific issue.
Learn
from the Christian Community:
There
is a growing awareness in Practical Theology on the role of the larger
Christian community in theological understanding. The phrase “Christian
community” can reflect a local congregation, but it usually encompasses the
entire church of all generations, acknowledging the role of tradition, the
studies of scholars through the years and around the world, as well as those
familiar with the details of a particular congregation. Amos Yong says,
The on-the-ground
aspect of Christian life drives theological reflection, and in that sense,
theology always strives to keep up, interpret, and understand Christian
discipleship in ever-changing contexts… [The theological task] is part and
parcel of the hermeneutical circle wherein we encounter and confront Scripture
and of the dialogical matrix wherein the many voices of our past meet and mesh
with the many tongues and discursive practices that constitute our present
lives.[52]
Learning can happen in formal
settings like classes and conferences, as well as informal relationships and
looking for models to emulate. The unique context and history of other cases
should be taken into consideration before immediate adoption. However, lessons
learned by others can provide valuable insights.
Learn
from Other Disciplines:
The cross-disciplinary nature of Practical Theology has already been noted.
Much can be learned from similar fields and even beyond. Analogous lessons can
be learned from completely different fields.[53]
Study
the Context: Quantitative
data can be of immense value in determining the reality of the congregation as
well as the community and what forces are at work. Chip and Dan Heath warn
against falling into a “confirmation bias.” This occurs when leaders neglect to
seriously consider hard data that goes against their assumptions.[54]
Qualitative studies can also be helpful in uncovering attitudes and behaviors
at work in the church and community that can affect the success of some
options.
5)
Reach Forward
Once each live option has been researched,
the long term ramifications and likelihood of success of each can be evaluated.
However, the tendency of organizations has been to exercise trendspotting,
assuming recent trends will continue and the future can be predicted. Although
this approach can sometimes yield desirable results, trends rarely continue at
the same rate for long periods of time. The US Housing Boom of 2002-2006 is an
excellent example. Many who bought investment homes in that period assumed that
the rate of price increase would continue indefinitely.
Story Shaping proposes an alternate
approach called trajectory prospecting. Rather than assuming trends will
continue and that a single future can be predicted, it assumes a trajectory is
a more accurate way to anticipate the future. It also avoids the regression to
the mean fallacy pointed out by Kahneman.[55]
Trajectories also represent the non-linear, wave-like quality of fashions,
fads, and other phenomena.[56]
Considering a range of possible outcomes increases the chance of accuracy.
Because more possible outcomes are considered, trajectory prospecting is more
complex and time consuming. Yet, the increased considerations can enable
decisions and plans to be made with more confidence. There are several steps in
this process.
Plot
the Trajectory to the Current Point:
Researching the organization’s past will point out the general nature of the
line historically. Things to look for include: patterns, length and intensity
of cycles, forces that caused trajectory changes in the past, and the shape and
direction of the most recent trajectory.
Select
a Few Representative Prospects:
Potential
curves can be plotted forward that provide a range of possible futures. A few
plots can be made representing likely outcomes of the various options
considered.
Evaluate
Likely Outcomes:
The Heaths recommend conducting “pre-mortems” and “pre-parades” by mentally
imagining themselves after undesirable outcomes have happened and asking, “What
factors led to our failure? What did we do wrong?” Similarly, the mental
imagery of success is envisioned, and the team asks one another, “Why did we
succeed?”[57]
These can help evaluate the different options available and the likely
trajectories. A cost/benefit analysis can also be used for each likely outcome.
Those options whose outcomes are high risk with little reward and high cost
with little benefit can be eliminated.
6)
Read the Remaining Options through the Intentional Lens
Options and their outcomes can be
evaluated to determine which are truly in line with the organization and
individuals’ beliefs, ethics, and values. Those that conflict should be
eliminated. A priority can be established.
7)
Resolve
At this point, the best option may be clear.
However, even if not, a decision can be made. The future cannot be predicted,
and the best choice cannot always be known. Working this process prayerfully
can enable leaders to decide with confidence, even in the face of uncertainty.[58]
When a team is used, consensus may not be
possible. A majority vote may not yield the best decision at every occasion,
yet thorough discussion of all information gleaned through the process, including
another round of prayerful reflection, weighing the costs, and considering likely
outcomes is good before the final decision is made. Yet, at some point, the
decision should be finalized.
C) Plan
The third and final portion of writing the
new story is developing the plan to implement the decision. This is not
complicated in several applications of Story Shaping. However, in ministry
planning, this can be quite an extensive process, including determining
specific action steps, timelines, and personnel required. Documents can be
developed to identify what needs to be done in what order. Sample plans can be
developed for a variety of applications.
STEP THREE – TELL THE NEW
STORY
Once a decision has been reached and a
plan developed to implement it, those affected should be notified and the
action taken. When significant change is enacted at a church or other
organization, those who have been members for a significant time period are
likely to resist unless the change is communicated in a healthy way. The
acronym SMART is used to help leaders communicate the new plan to people in ways
they are likely to understand and embrace.
Simple –
Although plans are often detailed, most people have difficulty understanding
and remembering something complex. It can be tempting to try to communicate
everything about a plan, but a simple, memorable model or acronym can increase
the likelihood people will embrace the change and follow through.[59]
Motivating
– People often do not embrace change because they fear losing what they value.
As leaders read the lenses of their followers, especially their values, they
can phrase the change to speak to what those in their organizations care about
most. Simon Sinek’s Start with Why demonstrated
how marketing and other persuasive message that start by answering What? or How? are
less effective at motivating people than those that start with the reason for
the change.[60]
Pointing out the likely long term wins of the change and the long term costs of
the status quo can help people embrace the new direction.
Actionable
– Some plans fail because clear responsibility is not assigned or unrealistic
expectations are made. All involved should be aware of both the big picture and
their specific roles. Communication to all involved is essential.
Rewarded – Celebration is
motivation and builds morale in an organization. Clear and early wins will help
build ownership of the new plan. Measurement of key indicators and specific
awards with stories send a clear message of what matters most. These
celebrations can becomes anchor points for further growth and improvement.[61]
Tentative – Consistent
evaluation is critical for long term success. Early monitoring can reveal
needed course correction. One of Shane Snow’s smartcuts is Rapid Feedback.[62]
Similarly, Iny and Brandenbere urge organizations to “reevaluate relentlessly.”[63]
Churches and other organizations can get locked into a pattern without
evaluation. However, sufficient time must be given to allow for the learning
curve. New processes are not usually as efficient or effective until the people
involved develop the skills to handle them impulsively instead of
intentionally.
Story Shaping will hopefully be developed
more fully as a system that can be understood by church, ministry, and business
leaders, as well as laypeople, to handle a wide variety of life situations. In
closing, here is a brief, paradigmatic review of the Jerusalem Council and how
their handling of a very difficult situation encompassed many of the elements
of Story Shaping.
ACTS 15 AS AN EXAMPLE OF
STORY SHAPING
In the city of Antioch, there was a major
disagreement on what it meant to be a Christian and what new Christians who
were not of Jewish background needed to do to become Christians. At its core,
this was an Intentional Lens Layer One (Beliefs) and Layer Two (Ethics) issue.
The Apostle Paul, Barnabas, and the
Christians in Antioch believed (Layer
One - Beliefs) that Gentiles only needed to believe in Jesus to become
Christians. They felt these Gentiles should
not (Layer Two – Ethics) get circumcised, because that would be trying to
earn God’s favor through a work of the Jewish law, not the faith that Christ
prescribed. However, some Pharisees who had become Christians disagreed. They believed (Layer One – Beliefs) that
becoming a Christian meant becoming a Jew and required following all of the
Law, including circumcision. Therefore, in their minds, Gentile converts must (Layer Two – Ethics) be circumcised
to be fully saved. Fortunately, both groups valued
(Layer Three – Values) honoring and obeying God over all else and were willing
to get together to reason (Layer
Four) things out.
The first thing they did was to read the
old story. They did this by seeking to understand each other’s stories. Acts
15:4-11 describes Paul and Barnabas sharing their beliefs and ethics along with
the experiences they had that validated them. The Pharisees who disagreed were
also given a chance to share their story. Next, the Apostle Peter shared his
own story of how his beliefs on the issue were changed through experience and
God’s revelation. This is an excellent example of our first step, Read the Old Story. Everyone got to
speak. Everyone had the opportunity to be understood. They all understood the
reason for the conflict, and they were willing to ask how God might be at work.
They then proceeded to Write the New Story. The people part of
the process was already decided. The Jerusalem Council consisted of people on
both sides of the issue, plus many of the original Apostles, and James (Jesus’ half-brother),
who was recognized as the leader of the church in Jerusalem. Their prospecting
was not as concerned with future outcomes as with what should be done at that
time and in all times. They considered the options presented. Although Luke
only records James’ words in this section, they provide clear evidence of
theological reflection. In verse 14, James pointed to the evidence of Peter’s
miraculous experience in Joppa (described in Acts 10 and relayed by Peter to
all those present at the Jerusalem Council) as evidence of God’s sanction of
Gentile salvation through faith without circumcision. He next reflected on
scripture (Amos 9:11-12) and applied it to their situation. He then made a
clear decision not to require the Gentiles to be circumcised in verse 19. Verse
28 makes it clear there was a corporate consensus on the decision, so there
must have been dialogue by all those there since they came to that kind of an
agreement.
Although the decision was made at this
point, it would have had no impact on the early church had they not then made
the step of planning how to implement it. This corresponds to Step Three – Tell the New Story. James ordered a
letter with simple instructions sent to the churches facing this dilemma. This letter
was delivered by Paul, Barnabas, Barsabbas, and Silas – a blended team of those
who had been at Antioch and those who had been in Jerusalem in recent years. It
showed unity and gave voices all could respect. The wording of the letter
itself was positive and motivating. What they asked of the Gentiles was clear
and actionable. The reward was obviously from God, ultimately, but the unity of
the church and ceasing of hostility brought a real, temporal reward as well.
Finally, they told the story tentatively. As Paul and his friends set out to
deliver the letters, some improvisation was required along the way. It seems
that the Letter to the Galatians may have been part of Paul’s efforts to
clarify some misunderstandings that still existed after the initial visit
following the Council of Jerusalem. His later return to Jerusalem with an
offering and representatives of many of the new Gentile churches was likely a
further, Holy Spirit inspired, effort to continue the reconciliation and
healing process. (Acts 20-21 and II Corinthians 8-9) Today the church around
the world is still strongly communicating the message of God’s love and grace
because its early leaders were willing to shape its story in the right direction.
[1] George Barna and David Kinnaman, Churchless: Understanding Today’s Unchurched
and How to Connect with Them (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale Momentum, 2014),
report the percentage of Americans who consider themselves unchurched has
increased from 30% in the 1990s to 43% in 2014. The 2012 Pew Research Religion
and Life Project, “Nones on the Rise,” October 9, 2012, http://www.pewforum.org/2012/10/09/nones-on-the-rise/ [Accessed January 11, 2105],
reported the percentage of “unaffiliated Americans” (self-declared atheists,
agnostics, and those with no religious affiliation) increased from 15% in 2007
to more than 20% by 2012. Thom Rainer, “13 Issues for Churches in 2013,” http://www.churchleaders.com/pastors/pastor-articles/164787-thom-rainer-13-issues-churches-2013.html [Accessed January 11, 2015],
estimated 8,000-10,000 American churches closed their doors in 2013.
[2] John Kotter, Leading Change (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996);
Spencer Johnson, Who Moved My Cheese: An
Amazing Way to Deal with Change in Your Work and in Your Life (New York: G.
P. Putnam’s Sons, 1998).
[3] Aubrey Malphurs, Advanced Strategic Planning, First Edition
(Grand Rapids, Baker: 1999); Ed Stetzer and Mike Dodson, Comeback Churches (Nashville, TN: B & H Books, 2007); and Dan
Southerland, Transitioning (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.
[4] Stephen E. Parker, Led By the Spirit: Toward a Practical
Theology of Pentecostal Discernment and Decision Making Sheffield, UK:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 12. Other definitions include: Mark Lau Branson and Juan F. Martinez, Churches, Cultures and Leadership: A
Practical Theology of Congregations and Ethnicities (Downers Grove, IL: IVP
Academic, 2011), 41, “The ongoing life of the church between study/reflection
and engagement/action;” and Andrew
Root, Christopraxis: A Practical Theology
of the Cross (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2014), 10, Practical Theology is ministry, which
is divine action, whether through the direct presence of God or the ministerial
activity of his people.
[5] Jerome Cottin, “The Evolution of
Practical Theology in French Speaking Europe,” International Journal of Practical Theology (2013: 17(1)): 33.
[6] Richard Osmer, Practical
Theology: An Introduction (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008).
[7] Malphurs, 95-144.
[8] Don S. Browning, A Fundamental Practical Theology (Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 1991), 285.
[9] Sally A. Brown, “Hermeneutics in
Protestant Practical Theology,“ Opening
the Field of Practical Theology: An Introduction, Kathleen Cahalan and
Gordon S. Mikosi, eds. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014), 117, writes,
“Thinking critically about the act of interpretation is not something that
practical theologians can take or leave; it is part and parcel of every effort
to understand the way communities of faith function, both internally and in
relation to the communities in which they are embedded.” See also: Elaine
Graham, Transforming Practice: Pastoral
Theology in an Age of Uncertainty (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2002);
Charles V. Gerkin, The Living Human
Document: Revision Pastoral Counseling in a Hermeneutical Mode (Nashville,
TN: Abingdon, 1984); Stanley Hauerwas, The
Peaceable Kingdom: A Primer in Christian Ethics (Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame
University Press, 1983); and Osmer, 21-23.
[10] See David I. Smith and James K.A.
Smith, “Faith, Practices, and Pedagogy,” Teaching
and Christian Practices (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 12-14, for one
example on how one’s understanding of the world and the meaning of practices
can be developed in community.
[11] Dale M. Coulter, “On Traditions,
Local Traditions, and Discernment,” Pneuma
36 (2014): 1-3.
[12] Coulter, 3, identified that Early
Christian tradition developed as a common identity that sought to integrate
orthodoxy, orthopraxis, and orthopathy: right beliefs, right practice (ethics),
and right values. These correspond to the intentional story lens.
[13] Carol Dweck, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (New York: Random House,
2006).
[14] Shannon Chamberlain, "Adam Smith and the Romance
Novel," The Atlantic (September 3, 2014).
[15] Jerel P. Calzo
and Monique Ward, "Media Exposure and
Viewers' Attitudes Toward Homosexuality: Evidence for Mainstreaming or
Resonance?" Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media (2009):
280-299; David Gauntlett, Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction
(New York: Routledge, 2008); Jennifer M. Bonds-Raacke, Elizabeth T. Cady,
Rebecca Schlegel, Richard J. Harris & Lindsey Firebaugh, "Remembering
Gay/Lesbian Media Characters," Journal of Homosexuality 53, no. 3
(2007): 19-34.
[17]
This is demonstrated by Don Beck and Christopher
Cowan, Spiral Dynamics: Mastering Values, Leadership and Change (New York: Blackwell Business, 1996).
In the middle of the twentieth century, academic psychologist Clare W.
Graves developed a theory he later termed Spiral Dynamics, an “emergent cyclical levels of
existence theory,” that sought to explain how both individuals and societies
think and act and how cultures have developed throughout history. Graves’ work
was not published until he partnered with Don Beck near the end of his life in
1975. Beck systematized and popularized Graves’ work, which has had tremendous
influence on psychology, anthropology, and business. One of the core concepts
of Spiral Dynamics is the eight “value systems” that are used to categorize
societies around the world and throughout history. Beck and Graves diagnosed
that many major cultural conflicts have resulted from values systems conflicts.
Beck was even invited to South Africa by the President Nelson Mandela to help
that country “memetically” navigate the massive cultural and values system
changes resulting from the abolition of Apartheid and the goal of ending
racism.
[18] Soren Kierkegaard, Journals and Papers, Vol. 5 (Bloomington,
IN: Indiana University Press, 1978), 5.
[19] Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York:
Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2011).
[20] Richard E. Petty, Pablo Brinol,
and Zakary L. Tormala, “Thought Confidence as a Determinant of Persuasion: The
Self-Validation Hypothesis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82,
no. 5 (2002): 722-741. James B. Stiff, and Paul A. Mongeau, Persuasive
Communication (New York: Guilford, 2003), 233. Duane T. Wegener and Richard E. Petty, “Understanding
the Effects of Mood through the Elaboration Likelihood and Flexible Correction
Models, ” in ed. Leonard L. Martin and Gerald L. Clare, Theories of Mood and
Cognition: A User’s Guide (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2001), 177-210.
[21] Richard M. Perloff, The
Dynamics of Persuasion: Communication and Attitudes in the 21st Century (Mahwah,
NJ: Erlbaum, 2003), 128-142; and Stiff and Mongeau, 217-235.
[22] William James, Principles of Psychology, Vol. 2 (New
York: Dover, 1952), 389.
[23] Jonah Lehrer, How We Decide (New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 2009).
[24] Kaheneman, 44.
[25] Daniel Goleman, (Working with
Emotional Intelligence, New York: Bantam, 1998), 74-76.
[26] Kahneman, 178.
[27] Daniel Coyle, The Talent Code (New York: Bantam, 2009), 33-50.
[28] Root, 57.
[29]
A
biblical example of seeing God already at work in others before they even came
to faith in Christ is found in Acts 17:16-31. This was Paul’s first visit to
the great center of philosophy in his day: Athens. He was initially provoked by
all of the idols in the city. While this was initially a point of offense for
the devout Christian monotheist, he began to look beyond his offense to find
ways God may have already been at work in the culture. He was not content to
let them rest in their idolatry, but he looked for an open door of
understanding that could be a way God was at work. He found it in the “altar to
an unknown god.” Throughout his message to the philosophers of the Aeropagus,
Paul sought to make known to them “what they had worshipped in ignorance” with
that altar. He also pulled evidence for the truth of one creator God who
revealed himself in the Savior Jesus Christ though Greek poets and
philosophers, and even creation itself. Paul recognized his visit was not an
opportunity to not start God’s work among the Athenians but to take it to
fruition with a full explanation of the God they only knew in part before.
[30] Leonard Sweet, Nudge: Awakening Each Other to the God Who’s
Already There (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 2010).
[31] Jim Collins, Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap and Others Don’t
(New York: HarperBusiness, 2001).
[32] Bill Hybels, Courageous Leadership (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 123-127.
[33] Adapted from Hybels, 123-130, and Malphurs,
59-60.
[34] Chip Heath and Dan Heath, Decisive: How to Make Better Choices in Life
and Work (New York: Random House, 2013).
[35] Alex Faickney Osborne, Applied Imagination (New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1953).
[36] For example, Productivity Loss in Brainstorming Groups:
Toward the Solution of a Riddle,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53
(1987), 497–509; “Design Fixation,” Design Studies, 12 (1991), 3–11; Unblocking Brainstorms.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 76 (1991), 137–142; and B. Productivity Loss in Brainstorming Groups: A Meta-analytic
Integration,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 12 (1991), 3–23.
[37] Nicholas W. Kohn and Stephen M.
Smith, “Collaborative Fixation: Effects of Others’ Ideas on Brainstorming,” Applied Cognitive Psychology 25, no. 2
(May/June 2011), 359-371; and S. M. “Incubation and the Persistence of Fixation in
Problem Solving,” American Journal of Psychology, 104 (1991), 61–87.
[38] Shane Snow, Smartcuts: How Hackers, Innovators, and Icons Accelerate Success
(New York: HarperBusiness, 2014).
[39] Edward De Bono, Six Thinking Hats (New York: Back Bay
Books, 1999).
[40] Malphurs, 46-47.
[41] Luc de Brabandere and Alan Iny, Thinking in New Boxes, (New York: Random
House, 2013), 6.
[42] Kathleen A. Cahalan and Gordon
Mikoski, Opening the Field of Practical
Theology: An Introduction (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014), 2-3.
[43] Root, 244-245.
[44] Amos Yong, Renewing Christian Theology: Systematics for a Global Christianity
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 2014), 336.
[45] Yong, 342-355.
[46] Kenneth J. Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic: Spirit,
Scripture, and Community (Cleveland, TN: CPT Press, 2002), 226-233.
[47] The possibility of divine guidance
is a controversial issue among New Testament scholars. Some conservative
scholars deny any revelation subsequent to the canonical scriptures. Carl
Henry, God, Revelation and Authority, Volume II: God Who Speaks and Shows (Waco: Word Books, 1976), 14-15,
says, “The Holy Spirit conveys no new truth,” in spite of presenting a theology
of revelation in fifteen theses. He
argues the Spirit can only illuminate and interpret the revelation already
given in the pages of the Bible. Garry Friesen and J. Robin Maxson, Decision
Making and the Will of God: A Biblical Alternative to the Traditional View
(Portland, OR: Multnomah, 1980), p. 82, say, “The Bible is fully sufficient to
provide all the guidance needed for a believer to know and do God’s will.” Yet
a growing number of theologians argue that revelation is a present
reality. Paul Tillich, Systematic
Theology, Volume I: Reason and Revelation, Being and God, Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1951, 127-132, says, “Christianity… should affirm
that there is continuous revelation in the history of the church… A dependent
revelatory situation exists in every moment in which the divine Spirit grips,
shakes, and moves the human spirit….
Revelation occurs in every true prayer.” H. Niebuhr Richard, The
Meaning of Revelation, New York: Macmillan, 1946, 136, says, “The God who
revealed himself continues to reveal himself.” As Dallas Willard, In Search of Guidance (Ventura, CA:
Regal Books, 1984), 120, says, “There is no foundation in Scripture, in reason,
or in the nature of things why any or all of these types of experiences might
not be used by God today to communicate with His creatures.” Karl Barth, Church
Dogmatics, Volume I:1, The Doctrine of the Word of God, Edinburgh: T &
T Clark, 1960, 518-519, believes the Holy Spirit enables each person to have
his own personal participation in revelation and gives him instruction and
guidance he cannot receive any other way. In the outpouring of the Holy Spirit,
Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics, Volume I:2, The Outpouring of the Holy Spirit,
Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1960, 223, says, “The objective possibility of
revelation becomes a subjective reality.”
[48] Stanley Frodsham, Spirit
Filled, Led and Taught, Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House, [193?],
33.
[49] In centuries past, Acts was not a
common source of theology, but that has changed. Roger Stronstad clearly articulated the value
of narrative as a source of theology in his book, The Charismatic Theology
of St. Luke (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1984). This perspective has become widely accepted
even by non-Pentecostal evangelical theologians. For example, I. Howard Marshall, The Acts
of the Apostles: An Introduction and Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1980), 17-33, states that nearly all scholars today accept the belief that one
of Luke’s primary agendas in writing the Acts is theological. Luke also usually records both the source and
process Paul used in making decision, thus providing an excellent “laboratory”
for developing this theology. Acts records Paul using his own reason as the
primary means of decision-making in 18 instances (9:24, 11:29, 15:22, 25, 15:36-38, 16:2-3, 16:13, 17:2, 19:21,
19:30-31, 20:3, 20:16, 21:21-26, 23:15-24, 25:11, 27:10, 27:30-31), prophecy
on 4 occasions (11:29, 13:1-4, 21:4. 21:10-14), he received 5
appearances, visions or dreams (9:4-6, 9:10-16, 16:9-10, 18:9-11, 23:11,
27:22-26), and it seems that 3 occasions were likely internal guidance by
the Holy Spirit (15:28, 16:6, 7, 20:22-25).
[50] Stephen E. Parker, Led By the Spirit: Toward a Practical
Theology of Pentecostal Discernment and Decision Making (Sheffield, UK:
Sheffield Academic Press: 1996), 34.
[51] Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard
Friedrich, “Sofia,” Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.
[52] Yong, 354.
[53] Heath and Heath, 80.
[54] Heath and Heath, 11-15.
[55] Kahneman, 175-184.
[56] Snow, 101-122.
[57] Heath and Heath, 202-217.
[58] Andy Stanley, Next Generation Leader (Sisters, OR: Multnomah, 20013), 52.
[59] Snow, 157-160.
[60] Simon Sinek, Start with Why: How Great Leaders Inspire Everyone to Take Action
(New York: Portfolio Hardcover, 2009).
[61] James M. Kouzes and Barry Z.
Posner, Encouraging the Heart (San
Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2003), 89-128; and Kotter, 121-136.
[62] Snow, 53-77.
[63] Brabandere and Iny, 187-215.
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